Time: Thu Jul 24 08:41:48 1997
by primenet.com (8.8.5/8.8.5) with ESMTP id IAA21111
for [address in tool bar]; Thu, 24 Jul 1997 08:40:51 -0700 (MST)
by usr09.primenet.com (8.8.5/8.8.5) with SMTP id IAA16301;
Thu, 24 Jul 1997 08:36:07 -0700 (MST)
Date: Thu, 24 Jul 1997 08:35:35 -0700
To: (Recipient list suppressed)
From: Paul Andrew Mitchell [address in tool bar]
Subject: SLS: Logical Fallacies (fwd)
Fallacy: "The IRS is in the U.S. Department of the Treasury."
/s/ Paul Mitchell
http://www.supremelaw.com
<snip>
>
>---------------------------------------------------------------------------
>
> Logical Fallacies
> A fallacy is a misleading or false argument or belief. What follows is a
>list of the most common informal and formal logical fallacies. Learn these
>and be able to spot logical fallacies in your (and others') reasoning.
>
>ACCENTUS
>
>One of the Fallacies of Ambiguity, which arises from the emphasis (the
>accent) placed on a word or phrase.
>
>AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT
>
>An argument based on a hypothetical statement, and the truth of the
>consequent to the truth of the antecedent. In the SYLLOGISM below, A is the
>antecedent and C is the consequent:
>
>A implies C
>C is true <-- Affirming the consequent
>______________
>Therefore: A is true
>
>
>AMBIGUITY
>
> An argument in the course of which at least one term (such as "rights") is
>used in different senses. Also known as equivocation. There are several
>types of "fallacies of ambiguity," including REIFICATION, EQUIVOCATION,
>AMPHIBOLY, COMPOSITION, DIVISION, and ACCENTUS.
>
>AMPHIBOLY
>
>A type of Fallacy of Ambiguity where the ambiguity involved is of an
>"amphibolous" (equivocal, uncertain) nature. Amphiboly is a syntactic error.
>The fallacy is caused by faulty sentence structure, and can result in a
>meaning not intended by the author. "The department store now has pants for
>men with 32 waists." (How many waists do you have?)
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD ANTIQUITAM
>
> A fallacy of asserting that something is right or good simply because it is
>old; that is, because "that's the way it's always been."
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM
>
> An argument that resorts to the threat of force to cause the acceptance of
>the conclusion. Ad baculum arguments also include threats of fear to cause
>acceptance (e.g., "Do this or you'll go to Hell when you die!" or "I made him
>an offer he couldn't refuse.").
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD CRUMENAM
>
>Fallacy of believing that money is a criterion of correctness; that those
>with more money are more likely to be right. "If he's so stupid why is he
>so rich?" The reverse of a. ad crumenam is a. ad lazarum.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM
>
> An argument that attempts to disprove the truth of what is asserted by
>attacking the speaker rather than the speaker's argument. Another way of
>putting it: Fallacy where you attack someone's character instead of dealing
>with issues. The two basic types of ad hominem arguments: are 1) abusive,
>and 2) circumstantial. This is the most common form of Logical Fallacy.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM
>
> An argument that a proposition is true because it has not been shown to be
>false, or vice versa. Ad ignorantium arguments are also known as "appeals to
>ignorance." This fallacy has two forms:
>
>1. The statement is true, because it has not been proven false.
>2. The statement is false, because it has not been proven true.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD LAZARUM
>
> A fallacy of assuming that because someone is poor he or she is sounder or
>more virtuous than one who is wealthier. -- "responsible breeders don't make
>money." This fallacy is the opposite of the informal fallacy a. ad crumenam.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM
>
>An argument that appeals to pity for the sake of getting a conclusion
>accepted (or for fundraising).
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD NAUSEUM
>
>The incorrect belief that an assertion is more likely to be true the more
>often it is heard. An a. ad nauseum is one that employs constant repitition
>in asserting a a statement is the truth. Dr. Goebbel's Big Lie Theory.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD NOVITAM
>
> A fallacy of asserting that something is more correct simply because it is
>new or newer than something else. Or that something is better because it is
>newer. -- "we've tried the other way for a while and it's failed, let's try
>something (anything) ." This type of fallacy is the opposite of a. ad
>antiquitam.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD NUMERAM
>
>A fallacy that asserts that the more people who support or believe a
>proposition then the more likely that that proposition is correct; it equates
>mass support with correctness.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM
>
>An argument that appeals to the beliefs of the multitude. Another way of
>putting it: Speaker deals with passions of audience rather than with salient
>issues. This fallacy is also known as "Appeal to Tradition" Ad populum
>arguments often occur in 1) propaganda, 2) demagogy, and 3) advertising.
>
>ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM
>
> An argument in which an authority is appealed to on matters outside his/her
>field of authority. (like veterinarians dispensing medical advice). a.ad
>verecundiam also refers to a fallacy of simply resorting to appeals to
>authority (like "Doctor" Tom Regan)
>
>BEGGING THE QUESTION (CIRCULAR REASONING)
>
>An argument that assumes as part of its premises that the conclusion is true.
>Another way of saying this is: Fallacy of assuming at the onset of an
>argument the very point you are trying to prove. This Fallacy is also known
>by the Latin "PETITIO PRINCIPII"or "CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO."
>
>BIFURCATION
>
>Also referred to as the "black and white" fallacy, bifurcation is the
>presentation of a situation or condition with ONLY TWO alternatives, whereas
>in fact other alternatives exist or can exist.
>
>COMPOSITION
>
>An argument which assumes that a whole has a specific property solely because
>itsvarious parts have that property. -- "Because ALF is a terrorist
>organization (and ALF is part of PETA) > all PETA members condone terrorism."
>Composition is a type of Fallacy of Ambiguity.
>
>CONVERTING A CONDITIONAL
>
>Description: If A then B, therefore, if B then A. <<<NOT!!!
>
>CUM HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC
>
> A fallacy of correlation that links events because they occur
>simultaneously; one asserts that because two events occur together they are
>causally related, and leaves no room for other factors that may be the
>cause(s) of the events. This fallacy is similar to the "post hoc" fallacy.
>
>DENIAL OF THE ANTECEDENT
>
>An argument in which one infers the falsity of the consequent from the truth
>of a hypothetical proposition, and the falsity of its antecedent.
>
>A implies B
>Not-A
>____________
>Therefore: Not-B
>
>DIVISION
>
> An argument in which one assumes that various parts have a property solely
>because the whole has that same property. Division is a type of Fallacy of
>Ambiguity -- the inverse of COMPOSITION.
>
>EQUIVOCATION
>
>An argument in which an equivocal expression is used in one sense in one
>premise and in a different sense in another premise, or in the conclusion.
>Equivocal means 1) of uncertain significance; not determined, and 2) having
>different meanings equally possible. Equivocation is a type of Fallacy of
>Ambiguity. The opposite of equivocation is "UNOVOCATION," in which a word
>always carries the same meaning through a given context.
>
>FALLACY OF INTERROGATION
>
>The question asked has a presuppostion which the answerer may wish to deny,
>but which he/she would be accepting if he/she gave anything that would count
>as an answer. Any answer to the question "Why does this event happen?"
>presupposes that the event does indeed happen.
>
>
>FALSE ANALOGY
>
> An analogy is a partial similarity between the like features of two things
>or events on which a comparison can be made. A false analogy involves
>comparing two things that are NOT similar. Note that the two things may be
>similar in superficial ways, but not with respect to what is being argued.
>**
>IGNORATIO ELENCHI
>
>An argument that is supposed to prove one proposition but succeeds only in
>proving a different one. IGNORATIO ELENCHI stands for "pure and simple
>irrelevance."
>
>ILLICIT PROCESS
>
> A syllogistic argument in which a term is distributed in the conclusion, but
>not in the premises. One of the rules for a valid categorical syllogism is
>that if either term is distributed in the conclusion, then IT MUST BE
>DISTRIBUTED IN THE PREMISES. There are two types of Illicit Process: Illicit
>Process of the Major Term and Illicit Process of the Minor Term.
>
>PLURIUM INTERROGATIONUM - COMPLEX QUESTIONS
>
>A demand for a simple answer to a complex question.
>
>NON CAUSA PRO CAUSA
>
>An argument to reject a proposition because of the falsity of some other
>proposition that SEEMS to be a consequence of the first, but really is not.
>
>NON-SEQUITUR - DOES NOT FOLLOW
>
> An argument in which the conclusion is not a necessary consequence of the
>premises. A conclusion drawn from premises that provide no logical
>connection to it.
>
>PETITIO PRINCIPII
>
>The same as "Begging the Question" This argument assumes its conclusion is
>true but DOES NOT SHOW it to be true. Petitio principii has two forms:
>
>1. P is true, because P is true.
>2. P is true, because A is true. And A is true because B is true.
> And B is true because P is true.
>
>POST HOC, ERGO PROPTER HOC
>
>An argument from a premise of the form "A preceded B" to a conclusion of the
>form "A caused B." Simply because one event precedes another event in time
>does not mean that the first event is the cause of the second event. This
>argument resembles a fallacy known as a HASTY GENERALIZATION.
>
>QUATERNIO TERMINORUM
>
>An argument of the syllogistic form in which there occur four or more terms.
>In a standard categorical syllogism there are ONLY THREE TERMS: a subject, a
>predicate, and a middle term.
>
>RED HERRING
>
>A fallacy when irrelevant material is introduced to the issue being
>discussed, such that everyone's attention is diverted away from the points
>being made, and toward a different conclusion. It is not logically valid to
>divert a chain of reasoning with extraneous points.
>
>REIFICATION
>
>To reify something is to convert an abstract concept into a concrete thing.
>Reification is a Fallacy of Ambiguity. Reification is also sometimes known
>as a fallacy of "HYPOSTATIZATION".
>
>SECUNDUM QUID (HASTY GENERALIZATION)
>
>An argument in which a proposition is used as a premise without attention
>given to some obvious condition that would affect the proposition's
>application. This fallacy is also known as the "HASTY GENERALIZATION." It is
>a fallacy that takes evidence from several, possibly unrepresentative, cases
>to a general rule; generalizing from few to many. NOTE THE RELATION TO
>STATISTICS: Much of statistics concerns whether or not a sample is
>representative of a larger population. The larger the sample size, the
>better the representativeness. Note also that the opposite of a hasty
>generalization is a sweeping generalization.
>
>SHIFTING THE BURDEN OF PROOF
>
> The burden of proof is always on the person making the assertion or
>proposition. Shifting the burden of proof, a special case of "ARGUMENTUM AD
>IGNORANTIUM," is a fallacy of putting the burden of proof on the person who
>denies or questions the assertion being made. The source of the fallacy is
>the assumption that something is true unless proven otherwise.
>
>SPECIAL PLEADING
>
> Special pleading is a logical fallacy wherein a double standard is employed
>by the person making the assertion. Special pleading typically happens when
>one insists upon less strict treatment for the argument he/she is making than
>he or she would make when evaluating someone else's arguments.
>
>STRAW MAN
>
>It is a fallacy to misrepresent someone else's position for the purposes of
>more easily attacking it, then to knock down that misrepresented position,
>and then to conclude that the original position has been demolished. It is a
>fallacy because it fails to deal with the actual arguments that one has made.
>
>SWEEPING GENERALIZATION
>
> Also known by the Latin term "DICTO SIMPLICITER", a Sweeping Generalization
>occurs when a general rule is applied to a particular situation in which the
>features of that particular situation render the rule inapplicable. A
>sweeping generalization is the opposite of a hasty generalization.
>
>TWO WRONGS MAKE A RIGHT (TU QUOQUE)
>
>Two wrongs never add up to a right; you cannot right a wrong by applying yet
>another wrong. Such a fallacy is a misplaced appeal to consistency. It is a
>fallacy because it makes no attempt to deal with the subject under
>discussion.
>
>UNDISTRIBUTED MIDDLE
>
>A syllogistic argument in which the middle term of a categorical
>syllogism is not distributed in AT LEAST ONE of the premises.
>
>---------------------------------------------------------------------------
>"Thanks to Danny Clark for providing this list."
>glen_quarnstrom@thebodhi.com
>---------------------------------------------------------------------------
>Check out this cool site: http://www.print-mail.com/calendar.htm
>
>
>
>=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
>Unsub info - send e-mail to majordomo@majordomo.pobox.com, with
>"unsubscribe liberty-and-justice" in the body (not the subject)
>Liberty-and-Justice list-owner is Mike Goldman <whig@pobox.com>
>
>
========================================================================
Paul Andrew Mitchell : Counselor at Law, federal witness
B.A., Political Science, UCLA; M.S., Public Administration, U.C. Irvine
tel: (520) 320-1514: machine; fax: (520) 320-1256: 24-hour/day-night
email: [address in tool bar] : using Eudora Pro 3.0.3 on 586 CPU
website: http://www.supremelaw.com : visit the Supreme Law Library now
ship to: c/o 2509 N. Campbell, #1776 : this is free speech, at its best
Tucson, Arizona state : state zone, not the federal zone
Postal Zone 85719/tdc : USPS delays first class w/o this
As agents of the Most High, we came here to establish justice. We shall
not leave, until our mission is accomplished and justice reigns eternal.
========================================================================
[This text formatted on-screen in Courier 11, non-proportional spacing.]
Return to Table of Contents for
Supreme Law School: E-mail